Thomas
Reid (1710-96) is just about as great as they come. Altho virtually
unknown today, this liberal philosopher, rebel, and paladin is a
powerful enemy of the would-be philosophical destroyers of man: George Berkeley,
David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and Friedrich Hegel. On the one hand, Reid
only lived long enough to decently study and refute Berkeley and
Hume. On the other hand, he was lightly pro-religion. But he still
used basic reason and common sense to explicitly and fairly-effectively counter the nihilism and skepticism of Berkeley and Hume;
and he used basic reason and common sense to implicitly and fairly-effectively counter the supernaturalism of "god".
Thomas
Reid wrote three great books: An Inquiry into the Human Mind: On
the Principles of Common Sense (1764), Essays on the
Intellectual Powers of Man (1785), and Essays on the Active
Powers of the Human Mind (1788). He was the most formidable
thinker of the late 1700s Scottish Enlightenment. And for a
generation or two, he was pretty much the intellectual leader of the
world. Reid was a champion of the philosophy of common sense
realism. If anyone wonders about the intellectual strength and
personal magnificence of the mostly-forgotten Thomas Reid, consider
what he wrote in his weakest work, and in just the preface and
introduction:
Reid
begins by focusing squarely on the five most authoritative and
important thinkers of his time: "Des Cartes, Malebranche, Locke,
Berkeley, and Hume" who he calls "men of very great penetration
and genius." Reid generously allows that "However contrary my
notions are to the writers I have mentioned, their speculations
have been of great use to me." He acknowledges that his rare
dissent from their largely skeptical-of-reason philosophies will "be
condemned by many" and yet he still hopes to appeal to "the
candid and discerning Few."
Just
as Immanuel Kant was famously "awakened from my dogmatic slumber" by David Hume, so was Reid, but to infinitely better effect. At age
29, the formerly pro-Berkeley scholar was shocked and galvanized by
Hume’s A Treatise of Human Nature (1739). Reid ominously
observed that "the ingenious author of that treatise" has
concocted "a system of skepticism which leaves no ground to believe
any one thing rather than its contrary."
Altho
Thomas Reid heavily condemns irrationalists, skeptics, and sophists
like Berkeley, Hume, Kant, and Hegel in his Inquiry into the Human
Mind, he takes a gentlemanly and magnanimous view of their persons: "I conceive the skeptical writers to be a set of men whose business
it is to pick holes in the fabric of knowledge wherever it is weak
and faulty; and when these places are properly repaired the whole
building will become more firm and solid than it was formerly."
In
all his works Reid rejects the ancient hypotheses which began with
the Greek skeptics and sophists: "That nothing is perceived but
what is in the mind that perceives it: That we do not really perceive
things that are external but only certain images and pictures of them
imprinted upon the mind, which are called [by Berkeley, Hume, and
others] impressions and ideas." He damns that line of reasoning
about impressions and ideas which claims people "cannot from their
existence infer the existence of any other thing." As for the mental
impressions and ideas themselves, Reid notes that "they are such
fleeting and transitory beings that they can have no existence at
all" under the skepticist intellectual theories. Reid further
observes that "upon this hypothesis, the whole universe...vanish[es] at once."
Thomas
Reid finds these philosophical claims to be false and evil. He
correctly notes that such intellectual irrationality, skepticism, and
sophistry "overturn all philosophy...and virtue and common sense." Ultimately, Reid is a ferocious advocate of "common sense and
reason".
Reid
has enormous respect for Isaac Newton and other scientists of the
past century or two. After studying Newton closely he concludes that he "discovered the law of gravitation and the properties of
light" using "the maxims of common sense". Alas, "this age
[the 1700s]" has generated "a system of skepticism that seems to
triumph over all science, and even more over the dictates of common
sense."
Taking
the high road, as always, Thomas Reid claims "It is genius, and not
the want of it, that adulterates philosophy, and fills it with error
and false theory." By implication he condemns the Plato-like
philosophers of "creative imagination" that don’t deign to
involve themselves in the "servile employments [of] the dredges of
science." Reid notes that the wild inventions of these philosophers
has "coloring and every befitting ornament. The work pleases the
eye and wants nothing but solidity and good foundation."
Considering
the irrationality, skepticism, and sophistry which dominates his era,
Reid admits that "our philosophy concerning the mind and its
faculties is but in a very low state." It compares very unfavorably
to the hard sciences "of mechanics, astronomy, and optics." When
studying enemies of reason like Berkeley and Hume "we
are immediately involved in darkness and perplexity" and in danger
of falling into "absolute skepticism".
In
the opening passages of his Inquiry into the Human Mind, Reid mocks
the self-doubt and skepticism-of-reason of Descartes. He notes that "A man that disbelieves his own existence is surely as unfit to be
reasoned with as a man that believes he is made of glass." As for
his famous "Cogito ergo sum," Reid rejoins "Is it not as
good reasoning to say I am sleeping, therefore I am? or I am doing
nothing, therefore I am?"
As
for those who wonder if their consciousness deceives them, Reid isn’t
sure whether "to laugh at or pity the man who doubts its
testimony." He helpfully adds that any such philosophical doubter or skeptic should "hope for his cure from physic and good
regimen, rather than from metaphysic and logic."
Reid
laments that "our philosophy concerning the mind appears to be
very fruitful in creating doubts, but very unhappy in resolving
them." The relatively liberal, empiricist, materialist, good guys
of "Des Cartes, Malebranche, and Locke have all employed their
genius and skill to prove the existence of a material world; and with
very bad success." Reluctantly, Reid is forced to conclude that "these
three great men, with the best good will, had not been able, from all
the treasuries of philosophy, to draw one argument that is fit to
convince a man that can reason, of the existence of any one thing."
Reid
mocks: "Admired philosophy! daughter of light! Parent of wisdom and
knowledge." He observes that it's the job of these skepticist
philosophers to "dispel the clouds and phantoms which thou hast
discovered or created." If they can't or won't do it, then
mankind has no choice but to say: "I despise philosophy and
renounce its guidance: let my soul dwell with Common Sense."
Nothwithstanding
their considerable failures, the gentleman Reid makes an "Apology
for these philosophers". Despite "The defects and blemishes of
their system we ought rather to honor their memories" and thank
them for pointing us in the proper direction. Reid claims the
skeptics at least helped us defeat the "scholastic sophistry" which did mankind so much damage prior to the Enlightenment.
And
if philosophy (in the late 1700s) has earned "the contempt and
ridicule of sensible men" this is because it has engaged in
unwarranted fancy and fantasy and has "endeavored to extend [its]
jurisdiction beyond its just limits." It needs the solid grounding
and noble ideals of baseline reason and common sense.
Because "In the unequal contest betwixt Common Sense and Philosophy the
later will always come off both with dishonor and loss...it dies and
rots." Reid condemns the skeptical philosophers who have "waged
open war with Common Sense and hope to make a complete conquest of
it."
Almost
the entirety of Thomas Reid’s 1764 book takes dead aim at "the Bishop
of Cloyne" [Berkeley] and "the author of the Treatise of Human
Nature" [Hume]. But despite Reid’s contempt for the
irrationality and nonsensicality of their conclusions, he dolorously
notes that "the opinions of the ablest judges [of mankind] seems to be that
[Berkeley and Hume] neither have been, nor can be confuted; and that they have proved, by unanswerable arguments, what no
man in his senses can believe." If so, what could be more
destructive to mankind than this?
Hume
especially "leaves nothing in nature but ideas and impressions
without any subjects [such as humans] on which they may be
impressed." Under the philosophy of Hume "there is neither human
nature nor science in the world." Hume is "an author who neither
believes in his own existence nor that of his readers."
But
David Hume, like virtually all other nihilists and skeptics, does not
practice what he preaches -- does not try to live by his explicit
philosophy. Hume admits that "it was only in solitude and
retirement that he could yield an assent to his own philosophy;
Society, like daylight, dispelled the darkness and fogs of skepticism
and made [it] yield to the dominion of Common Sense." Reid
correctly notes that "Pyrrho the Elean [was] the father of this
philosophy."
Near
the end of the introduction Reid asks if philosophy itself is as
false and evil as the thinkers Berkeley, Hume, Kant, and Hegel make
it out to be. He observes that "It is a bold philosophy that
rejects, without ceremony, principles which irresistibly govern the
belief and conduct of all mankind."
Reid’s
position is that "If philosophy contradicts itself, befools her
votaries, and deprives them of every object worthy to be pursued or
enjoyed, let her be sent back to the infernal regions from which she
must have had her original." But fortunately for all, Reid argues
the problem entirely lies with the irrational and nihilistic
philosophers like Berkeley, Hume, Kant, and Hegel. Reid finds
philosophy itself to be "an agreeable companion, a faithful
counselor, [and] a friend to Common Sense, and to the happiness of
mankind."
Despite
the false and evil claims of skeptical fundamentalists like Berkeley
and Hume, Reid and other "sensible" thinkers are undeterred. They
continue to use reason, science, and common sense correctly, and thus
to understand that "snow is cold and honey sweet, whatever they [the nihilists] may
say to the contrary. He must either be a fool, or want to make a fool
of me, that would reason me out of my reason and sense."
Thomas
Reid ends by opposing any philosophy that will "naturally and
necessarily plunge a man into this abyss of skepticism." He rejects
all theories of irrationality, senselessness, nihilism, and
skepticism, affirming that "Such philosophy is justly ridiculous,
even to those who cannot detect the fallacy of it. It can have no
other tendency than to show the acuteness of the sophist, at the
expense of disgracing reason and human nature, and making mankind
Yahoos."